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| Front-side | Reverse-side |
|---|---|
| Centrifuge results, | heaviest organelles at the bottom e.g. nucleus, next lighter organelles e.g. mitochondria then lightest things e.g. ribosomes |
| ER | channels to transport substances around the cell. smooth helps in making lipids, rough has ribosomes for making proteins |
| Golgi body | makes carbohydrates, glyoproteins, substances are formed inside membranes and are then put into vesticles vesticles can merge with cell membranes to release the substance. |
| how are fats formed | 3 fatty acids and glycerol combine water is given off. the bond that joins them is called an ester bond |
| how are fungi to allow them to feed on dead organic matter | enzymes that digest food extracellularly and thin, branching thin hyphae to provide a large surface area for absoption of digestion products |
| how are the monosaccharides and amino acids moved first to the epithelial cells of the microvilli and then into the blood | facilliated diffusion active transport |
| how can you increase the rate of diffusion | increase the concentration gradient, the surface area in which the diffusion occurs, the temperature or decreasing the distance the molecules have to move |
| how do mammals control their temperature | in cold – shiver contrict blood vessels, raise hairs. in warm – relax hairs, dilate vessels, sweat |
| how does chromotography work | amino acids are soluble and each have different levels of solubility so each move up the solvent different amounts. The Rf value is the distance moved by the substance divided by the distance moved by the solvent |
| how does the countercurrent system in the fish work | a fish has many gill lamellae, and lamellae are covered wiith gill plates which are very thin, have a large surface area and lots of blood vessels, The blood vessels flows in opposite directions to the water this is called counter current which maintains a concentration gradient to exchange gases |
| how is lipid transferred | fatty acids and glycerol diffuse into the epithelial cells and then they recombine to make fats and then tiny droplets are absorbed into the lacteals of the lymph system |
| how is starch broken down? | it is broken down by amlyase into maltose and then by maltase into glucose |
| how is the surface area of the gut increased | by the folded wall and the presence of vili and microvilli |
| how is the wall of the stomach protected from protein digesting enzymes and stomach acid | the stomach is lined in mucous to protect it |
| mitochondria | have an inner matrix with many cristae, – which provide large surface area for respiration – which releases ATP. |
| Ribosomes | where protein is made, – RNA provides code for making protein |
| the r group… | can be sturated – no double bnd or unsaturated – double bond |
| what are enzymes | catalysts which speed up the rate of chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy so that the reactions take place within living organisms |
| what are fibrous proteins mainly used for | used for structure |
| what are globulous proteins used for | mainly enzymes |
| what are the main part of a diet | carbohydrates, lipids and proteins |
| What are the main polysaccharides and how are they formed? | starch, glycogen – alpha glucose, and cellulose – long chains of beta glucose two monomers can join together to form a disaccharide in a condensation reaction when multiple monomers join together it goes together to make a polysaccharides |
| what are the thee main layers of the gut wall | muscular layer, submucosa and the mucosa |
| what controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell | cell membrane |
| what do amino acids form | proteins |
| What does a typical bacteria cell have | cell wall, cell membrane, genetic material, ribosomes, plasmic and capsule |
| what does digestion involve | the hydrolysis of large molecules into smaller ones |
| what elements are in fats | carbon, hydrogen, oxygen |
| what elements make up protein | carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sometimes – sulphur, iron and phosphorus |
| what factors affect the enzyme | pH, temperature, if extreme pH protein is damaged and in high heat bonds are broken so the quaternary structure changes |
| what happens in hydrolysis | Water is added to polysaccharides with the addition of enzymes to split the polysaccharide into monosaccharides or smaller polysaccharides |
| what is active transport | the movement of ions and molecules against the concentration gradient and requires energy |
| what is an adaptation | a feature of an organism that suits it for a particular function and helps it to survive its environment |
| what is diffusion | the passive movement of molecules along a concentration gradient from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration |
| what is facillitated diffusion | movement of water soluble molecules through specific intrinsic proteins which doesnt require energy. |
| what is hypertonic solution | it has less water potential so water moves into it. |
| what is hypotonic solution | where it has more water potential so water moves out of it |
| what is osmosis | the net movement of waterthough a partially permeable membrane from an area of high concentration of water to an area to a low concentration of water |
| what is quaternary structure | when two or moer peptides join together e.g. haemoglobin (4) |
| what is the chain of lipid breakdown | lipids – into emulsified lipids by bile – into fatty acids and glycerol by lipase |
| what is the chain of protein breakdown | protein – into polypeptides by endopeptidase – into dipeptides by exopeptidase into amino acids by dipeptidase |
| what is the chain reaction to breathe in | h+ detected in aorta by chaemoreceptors, impulses sent to medulla, respiratory centre, this then sends impulses to the diaphram causing it to contract flat, to the outer intercostal muscles causing them to contract with raises the thorax. THis increases the volume in the lungs so that air is sucked in. |
| what is the di and poly saccharides for : glucose fructose galactose |
maltose starch sucrose glycogen lactose cellulose |
| what is the difference between light microscopes and electron microscopes | light microscope: uses light, has an eyepiece, can look at living material, can magnify up to 1000 times electron microscope: uses electrons, viewed on a screen, cannot be used on living material, can magnify many thousands of times |
| what is the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells | eukaryotic are advanced cells with all organelles, prokaryotic have no nucleus, a monopetide cell wall – no cellulose, no golgi bodies, no mitochondria or ER but have small ribosomes |
| what is the fuction of the operculum and the muscles of the mouth | to force the water in one direction |
| what is the primary form of proteins | the linear sequence of amino acids |
| what is the secondary structure | they can be twisted or coiled and there are two types: alpha helix most common, weak hydrogen bonds e.g keratin in hair and fingernails Beta sheets strong e.g. silk or lysozyme where the strength lets the enzyme keep its shape |
| what is the tertiary structure | refers to the way it is folded. described by bonds e.g. ionic, hydrogen, disulphur bridges – very strong |
| whats different about a phospolipid? | one of the fatty acids is replaced by a phosphate group |
| where are lipids digested | small intestine after being emulsified with bile from the liver |
| where does protein digerstion occur and what is needed and where do ythey come from | stomach and small intestine and depends on enzymes made n the gastric glands and pancreas |
| where is starch digested | amylase is produced in the salivary glands and released into the saliva so it begins in the mouth but most is done in the small intestine |
| why are the walls of the alveoli covered in liquid that contains surfactant | so that oxygen can dissolve to diffuse into the blood and the surfactant prevents the alveoli collapsing |
| why are the walls of the alveoli very thin | to reduce the distance the gas has to move. |
| why do cells that are designed for absoption have a large surface area and lots of mitochondria | large surface area increases the rate of diffusion, mitochondria are used to release energy for active transport |
| why do mammals have transport systems | because they have a small surface to volume ratio so they need systems to increase the surface to volume ratio |
| why does digestion occur? | because most foods are too large to be absorbed into the blood stream |
| why is a cell kept in isotonic solution | to keep the cytoplasm at a constant volume because water diffuses in and out of the cell at the same rate |
| why is bile used in lipid digestion | it is used to physically breakdown fat to increase the surface area for enzymes to act on |
| why use isotonic buffer solution | to ensure no net movement of water in or out of cells and maintain pH so that there is no damage to the cells |
| why use two way chromotography | because there are two similar Rf values so by using a different solvent they have different Rf values |