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Alhondiga A fortress-like granary in the mining town of Guanajuato where Peninsulares and royalists took refuge from Hidalgo’s army. After a bloody battle the latter broke into the Alhondiga, putting most of those inside to the sword. Word of this massacre began to discredit Hidalgo’s movement in the eyes of many Mexicans, but particularly among criollos who had initially supported it. They were coming to fear that a race war rather than an independence struggle might be int he making
Allende, Ignacio Second in command to Miguel Hidalgo in Mexico’s first independence struggle. As a militia officer he had some military training, though had never had any experience leading large combat forces into battle.
Amigos del Pais The groups of colonials (mainly well-educated Creoles but including some Peninsulares, mainly men) who read about and discussed current events. Many such groups were deeply affected by the philosophies of the Enlightenment, so issues of free trade and political autonomy were at the forefront. Clandestinely circulations translations the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Paine’s "Common Sense" and many things connected with the French Revolution were read and discussed by such groups.
Bastidas Puyucahua, Dona Micaela Wife of Tupas Amaru II, she was an important leader of the Great Rebellion of Peru (1780-83). Dona Micaela led troops, including women, into battle and came to be called "Coya," the title of pre-contact Incan queens, by her followers. She was captured along with her husband and like him executed in Lima in 1781
Bolivar, Simon A Venezuelan by birth, Bolivar emerged as the main architect of South American Independence. He led the forces that defeated the Spanish in northern South America, and along with forces from Argentina and Chile imposed independence of Peru.
Bonaparte, Joseph Napoleon’s brother imposed as king Jose I of Spain in 1809 after the successful French invasion of that nation
Bourbon Reforms Particularly associated with the reign of Spain’s Carlos III (1759-1788), these reforms represented efforts by succeeding Spanish governments to exert more control over the colonies and to create more efficient methods of control, defense, and profit. The idea was to subordinate the colonies more thoroughly to Spain, and make them pay a better income to royal coffers.
Califia Mythic Amazon queen presiding over a fabulously wealthy civilization. Though a creature of Spanish fiction, many believed that such a place actually existed. Califia and her kingdom were never found, but her name survives in the word "California"
California Divided into two main territories in Spanish jurisdictional thinking: Alta California, now the modern US state, which was known but not effectively occupied until the penetration of Franciscan missionaries in 1769. Baja California (still part of Mexico), which received a slight Spanish presence in the sixteenth century in the form of small settlements of pearl fishers, and then more extensive efforts by the Jesuits to found a string of missions in the seventeenth century
Captaincy-General of Venezuela (or Caracas) Created in 1777, it was a semi-autonomous sub-region of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. Its chief administrative officer was known as the "Captain-General." It was created as a reflection of the proven economic importance of this part of northern South America
Caracas Company One of the monopoly companies created during the era of the Bourbon Reforms (c. 1728). This royally charted company controlled the production of tobacco and chocolate beans in Venezuela.
Carlos IV Bourbon monarch of Spain ruling in the late 18th century and the first decade of the 19th. He lacked the drive and administrative abilities of his father, Carlos III, and left the Spanish empire in the hands of ministers picked more for their pleasing personalities and their intelligence and abilities. Carlos was captured by invading French troops in 1807 and sent into exile in France, where he was forced to abdicate the throne in 1808. This led to unstable conditions and rebellion in Spain.
Castas General term for people of mixed biological heritage. Elaborate �"casta painting" series were created showing many possible human "mixtures" and they sometimes derogatory labels, indicating both how complex and how racist late-colonial society had become. Some important casta labels: Mestizo (half indigenous, half Spanish); Mulatto (half African, half Spanish); Castizo (half mestizo, half Spanish)
Cholas Generic name for the women (often casta an indigenous) who accompanied military forces during the independence struggles. Many of them nursed the sick and wounded, worked as laundresses, cooks, spies, and even fought in battle. Many colas seem to have been the wives, lovers, sister, or even mothers of male soldiers. Most armies – insurgent as well as royal – could not have survived in the field without the support of these usually nameless and unsung women.
Christophe, Henri Despotic ruler who took over Haiti after the French were finally expelled from the island in 1804. He was assassinated in 1806, and a period of political chaos ensued in Haiti until 1822, when a new, stable government was finally installed under a mulatto leadership.
Cochran, Admiral Lord British naval officer who had been hired by O’Higgins and San Martin to lead the insurgent navy in S.A., but resigned (after the Spanish had mostly been defeated). At loose end, he was hired by Don Pedro’s Brazilian backers and commanded a small insurgent navy. This small fleet of English and Brazilian sailors, defeated the largest concentration of Portuguese troops, stationed in the northeast. His victory assured the success of Don Pedro’s bid to create an independent monarchy in Brazil.
Comunero Rebellion: Rising in 1781 by disaffected merchants, artisan, and others protesting what they saw as the unfair features of royal monopolies over the production of tobacco and chocolate beans in the Viceroyalty of New Granada. They were defeated by royal troops as they tried to attack the viceregal capital of Bogota
Constitution of 1812 A liberal document (affected by the Enlightenment) drawn up by the Spanish resistance gov’t making Spain into a parliamentary monarchy. However, it didn’t alter the relationship of Spain and its colonies, disappointed many citizens of the latter who had hoped to achieve local autonomy and freedom from restrictive colonial trade policies. Others feared that the more "radical" social changes incorporated in it might encourage the "lower orders" to agitate for a greater role in colonial society.
Creole someone of Spanish parentage born in the colonies
Cuartel Quarters of the soldiers (usually numbering from 4 to 6) stationed at each Alta California mission. The cuartel could and did also serve as a jail
Dom Joao Prince Regent of Portugal in 1807 at the time of the Napoleonic invasion. With British help, he and the entire royal court were transported to Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, arriving there in 1808. He loved Brazil and elevated it to equal status with Portugal. He resisted pressure to return to Portugal in 1814 after the defeat of Napoleonic forces there, but as Joao VI (his mother, the Queen, having died while Joao was in Brazil) was ultimately forced to return at the beginning of the next decade.
Dom Pedro Son of Joao VI, Pedro remained in Brazil, apparently with a suggestion from his father that he should assume the leadership of any Brazilian independence movement. In 1821 Pedro was ordered to return, but he refused, declaring that "I remain" in January 1822. Pedro did assume the leadership of an independence movement and in Sept 1822 issued the "Cry of Iprianga," "Independence or Death!" After limited conflict with Portuguese troops, Brazil became an independent monarchy under Pedro I.
Enlightenment Best known as an intellectual movement sweeping Western Europe in the eighteenth century. Stress was put on reason over faith, scientific learning, logical and rational forms of government, economic freedom, and the like. Some in Latin America began thinking that ideas about �rights of man� and equality expressed by some followers of the Enlightenment suggested that old colonial relationships were outmoded.
Estancias Name used for the big estates of La Plata (now Argentina), many of them raising cattle and/or horses
Exploitation Society Label given by a 20th century scholar to Haiti because of the harsh conditions facing the thousands of African slaves laboring on sugar and tobacco estates their, and because of the inferior status fastened on mulattoes and other "free people of color."
Fernando VII Son of Carlos IV, Fernando became king of Spain after the French were driven out in 1814. Despite the hopes of those who had created the Constitution of 1812, Ferdinand turned out to be a reactionary absolutist who quickly abrogated the Constitution and punished many who had backed it. Peace in Spain meant that Ferdinand could send troops to the colonies, and these reinforcements were able to defeat most the ongoing independence forces there (except La Plata) at least temporarily.
Fernando VII Son of Carlos IV, Fernando became king of Spain after the French were driven out in 1814. Despite the hopes of those who had created the Constitution of 1812, Ferdinand turned out to be a reactionary absolutist who quickly abrogated the Constitution and punished many who had backed it. Peace in Spain meant that Ferdinand could send troops to the colonies, and these reinforcements were able to defeat most of the ongoing independence forces there (except that of La Plata), at least temporarily.
Francis Drake English seafarer who claimed what is now California for Elizabeth I in 1579, naming the region "New Albion." While the English did nothing to folow up on this claim, it later served as a basis for Spanish fears that the British intended to occupy the region and was one of the things leading the Bourbons to initiate the Franciscan penetration of Alta California.
Franciscans A mendicant order an the first mahor order of friars to establish themselves in New Spain. They were involved on the mission frontier in the Queretaro area, and then inherited the missions of Baja California from the Jesuits. It was from these Baja missions that the Franciscans departed for Alta California in 1769 (the Dominicans, another important mendicant order in Mexico, ended up with the Bajo missions).
Free Trade Decree Issued in 1778, this policy increased the number of ports in the colonies that could trade legally with Spain. Although many in the colonies hoped that "free trade" would allow them to do business with anyone they chose (particularly the British), in reality the policy merely created "free trade" WITHIN the empire.
Gachupines Derogatory colonial name for Peninsular Spaniards
Gaucho The cowboy of La Plata (Argentina). In late-colonial literature the gaucho was emerging as a figure symbolizing the true character of the Pampas, but in "real life" gauchos (who were often castas) were looked upon by at least members of the urban upper classes as lazy, unreliable and even prone to criminality
Gender Complimentary The idea that although men and women perform different roles in society, these roles are equal and complimentary rather than arranged in some kind of value-laden hierarchy. Scholars argue that this gender ideology had existed among the Andean people before the Spanish invasion, and persisted in some form among them into the late colonial era (and beyond)
Godoy, Manuel de Chief minster to Carlos IV, Godoy had been the captain of the royal guard and, it was rumored, the Queen’s lover. Godoy made a series of disastrous diplomatic moves that generally speaking allied Spain with the wrong European power at the wrong time. As a result, Spain was often cut off from direct contact with its own colonies because of its involvement in Europe wars between Britain and France
Grands Blancs "Big Whites," the owners of large estates and powerful merchant families who dominated Haiti’s economic (if not political) life
hacienda A large agricultural estate. The owners of haciendas, known as hacendados, were often politically influential figures in their home regions. Some of them resented efforts by the Bourbons to restrict their access to formal political power, particularly in the upper levels of colonial administration.
Hapsburgs Spanish royal dynasty that was in decline by the late seventeenth century, epitomized by the reign of Carlos II (The Bewitched"), who was mentally deficient and unable to rule effectively. Carlos’s death without an heir precipitated the War of the Spanish Succession
Hidalgo, Miguel Mexican parish priest who in 1810 rose to leadership of the independence struggle there. His call for action is known as the "Cry of Dolores" on September 16. A devotee of Enlightenment-inspired ideas of social revolution, he hoped to create a more egalitarian society in Mexico. He hesitated to declare full independence, however, doing so later only under pressure from many of his followers. Couldn’t control his large troops. Captured by Spanish outside of Guadalajara in 1811, and executed.
Indians of the Immagination The docile, simple, and child-like indigenous people many members of the clergy expected to find in California (but generally speaking did not find). Such expectations and prejudices colored the way at least some friars treated neophytes, both in positive and negative ways.
Intendant System One of the Bourbon Reforms, this one created large geographic districts administered by a royally appointed Intendant, directly subordinate to the viceroys. The reform was designed to solve the problem of corruption and accountability in the regional colonial government. Some argued that in the process it created stronger feelings of regionalism in the colonies by "rewarding" growing outlying areas with stronger political leadership
Iturbide, Agustin de Conservative former royal military officer and creole who led the final push for independence in Mexico in the face of the reimposttion of the Spanish Const of 1812, which was linked in the minds of many creoles with the "rising of the masses" associated with the Hidalgo insurgency. His forces successfully defeated depleted Spanish forces by Sept 1821, freeing Mexico from Iberian rule. He became Emperor Agustin I, ruling an empire that lasted only until 1823, when it was overthrown.
Jesuits A powerful and successful religious order, the Jesuits led the effort to found mission settlements in frontier zones of both the Spanish and Portuguese American empires. When the Jesuits were expelled from the Spanish empire in 1769, their Baja California missions were transferred to the Franciscan order
Juntas Emergency governing committees created in response to the Napoleonic take-over of the Spanish government following 1807. Juntas were formed in regional centers in Spain, but coalesced in one junta based in the southern port of Cadiz (under British naval protection). In the colonies juntas were also formed in response to the same situation.
La Rancheria ("The hut") The first theater of Buenos Aires (1783), sudiences were greeted by the slogan "Theater is the Mirror of Life" painted over the main doorway. The theater specialized in plays, many of the written by local authors, celebrating the life on the Pampas. El Amor de la Estanciera (1789) was one such play. Some argue that the story and portrayal of characters in this play were "proto-nationalistic" in favor, or in other words celebrated the worth of things Argentine and the decadence of things European
Manila Galleons Large cargo ships laying the Pacific Ocean between Acapulco in New Spain and Manila in the Philippines. By the later 17th century some of the galleons were huge. Winds and currents dictated that the galleons sailed into the north Pacific and then down the coast of North America. Many in Spain and New Spain argued that it would make sense to create ports where the ships could be serviced in California, as well as fortifications which could protect them from pirates and hostile European navies.
Marquis de Pombal Chief Portuguese minister who pursued policies similar to those of the Spanish Bourbon reforms. This period of government (1750-1777) is known as the era of Pombaline Reforms
Marroquin, Agustin Bandit turned Hidalgo insurgent, Marroquin presided over the sack of Guadalajara and then brutalization of its non-insurgent population, particularly those Peninsulares still present in the city. His acts, carried out in 1811 as the Hidalgo movement was failing militarily, further alienated more moderate creoles in Mexico.
Mission A specialized term connoting both a physical complex of buildings and an effort to educate frontier indigenous peoples, who were to be taught the fundamentals of settles agrarian life as well as the Catholic faith. Strategically, missions were intended to help pacify and hold frontier areas
Morelos, Jose Maria Secular priest, disciple of Hidalgo. Most effective insurgent leader of first stages of Mex Ind. Had concrete ideas about organization of Mexico. In 1813, he declared Mexico Independent and in 1814, he helped draft the Mexican constitution. His movement was stopped by reinforced Spanish troops. Lost support unfairly because of Hidalgo’s out-of-control movement. His execution in 1815 halted the independence struggle temporarily
Neophytes term used to label indigenous people living in the missions
O’Higgins, Bernardo Chilean insurgent leader, he made an alliance with Argentine Gen. San Martin. Their combined forces drove the Spanish out of Chile and won independence for that former part of the viceroyalty of Peru.
Ortiz de Domingues, Dona Maria Josefa "La Corregidora" Wife of Queretaro’s corregidor. She and her husband were members of the Amigos del Pais group. Warned Hidalgo that the junta had found out about the uprising he had been planning so he was able to escape and begin the uprising. She is remembered as a heroine of independence
Pardos Label used for mulattoes in Brazil. Many mulattoes were part of Brazil’s free population, but only a very few (because of family connections) were found among the colony’s privileged population, beneficiaries of the "polite fiction" that allowed certain wealthy and well-connected non-Europeans to be "whitened"
Peninsular A Spaniard immigrant living in the colonies
Petits Blancs "Little Whites," small-scale merchants and traders, artisans, etc., who made up the majority of the white population of Haiti
Plan de Iguala Iturbide’s conservative plan for independence resting on three guarantees: 1) Mexico would be an independent nation under a constitutional monarchy; 2) the Roman Catholic Church would be the official church of the new nation; and 3) Creoles would have equality with Peninsulares
Presido Military fort, along with missions one of the "twin arms" of Spanish frontier penetration. Well-known California presidios were established in San Diego, Santa Barbara, Monterrey, and what is now San Francisco
Rancheros Owners of ranchos (mainly raising cattle for hides and tallow), they formed the small "elite" class of Alta California. Only 19 of these ranchos existed by 1790, a number which increased slowly to around 30 ranchos in the 1820s.
Rancho A livestock estate. Some could be quite large, particularly those in northern New Spain, but the same term was increasingly applied to smaller operations, as well
Revolution According to E. Bradford Burns, Revolution denotes the sudden, forceful, and violent overturn of a previously stable society and the substitution of other institutions for those discredited. Old, discredited institutions are destroyed and new ones erected in their place.
Riego, Revolt A revolt of Spanish Liberals in 1820 initially headed by Col. Riego. It forced Fernando VII, the politically reactionary son of Carlos IV, to place himself under the Constitution of 1812. Since Riego’s troops were about to be shipped to the Americas to put down recurrent independent wars there, Spain was unable to subdue its rebellious colonies. Many therefore see this revolt as an important factor behind the final triumph of independence struggles in Mexico and South America.
Saint Dominque French name for Haiti, their most important colony in tropical America. Occupying the western third of the island of Espanola, Haiti’s economy was focused primarily on the production of sugar (and secondarily on tobacco), which was grown on large estates worked by as many as 450,000 African slaves. White population probably numbered only around 25,000 in the 1780’s, with "free people of color" (mainly mulattoes) compromising around 25,000 more.
Sant Martin, General Jose de Emerged as Argentina’s main military leader during the wars of independence. He led an army over the Andes into Chile, where he allied himself with Bernardo O’Higgins, the local insurgent leader. San Martin’s forces were later able to push up into Peru where they united with the forces under Bolivar’s leadership. The last remnants of Spanish resistance in Peru had been crushed by 1826, and all of Spain’s former South American colonies were independent.
Serra, Fray Junipero A Franciscan, Fr. Serra became the Father President of the missions of Alta California (1769-1784)
Sertao The Brazilian backcountry
Tertulias Gatherings of well-to-do men and women to hear the newest music, to dance, and to discuss the issues of the day.
Tiradentes A mid-level military officer and one of the leaders of an aborted attempt to create an autonomous of even independent state in Brazil’s Minas Gerais mining region. Thismovement was discovered by the authorities in 1789 and quickly put down. Tiradentes was executed, while more prominent plotters (mine owners, wealthy merchants) suffered exile.
Toussaint L’Ouverture, Francois-Doninque Educated African slave who rose to the rank of general as an ally (1793) of the French Revolutionary forces sent to subdue the fighting in Haiti that ensued after the fall of the Bourbons in the revolution in Paris. He eventually turned on his French allies (1797) and drove them out of Haiti, becoming the first leader of what officially part of the French empire (but really a de-facto independent nation). Invading Napoleonic forces captured him in 1802 and exiled to France.
Treaty of Madrid Agreement between Spain and Portugal (1750) that realigned the border between Brazil and the South American Spanish colonies. It adversely affected the Jesuit reducciones, or missions, of Paraguay. Some Jesuits resisted a relocation of the missions by using Guarani militias (the Guarani were the indigenous people of the missions) against Portuguese troops, but this ended in a very bloody conflict that was won by the Portuguese.
Tupac Amaru II Title taken by the Andean cacique (ruling-class indigenous man) Jose Gabriel Noguera Condorcanqui who in 7180 led a major indigenous rebellion in Peru. The first Tupac Amaru ("Royal Serpent") had been the last Incan leader to fight against the invading Spaniards int he sixteenth century. He was captured and executed in Cuzco in 1781, though the movements itself lasted until 1783
Tupac Catari Peruvian indigenous leader who assumed the leadership of the "Great Rebellion" after Tupac Amaru II’s capture
Tupian Peoples The major indigenous ethnic group of Brazil, with a culture type classed as "semi-sedentary," or in other words based on some shifting "slash and burn" agriculture, hunting, and gathering. In the Sertao such peoples were often victims of an illegal indigenous slave trade.
United Provinces of Rio de la Plata Name adopted in 1816 when the old viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, which had been independent in everything but name since 1806, finally issued and official decree of independence.
Vaqueros The California cowboys, or employees of the stock-raising ranchos. At least some of them seem to have been acculturated indigenous men in the early 19th century.
Viceroy The vice-king, chief executive officer presiding over viceroyalties, the major colonial administrative jurisdictions. Viceroys were appointed by the king and usually came from the highest levels of the nobility. They usually served five-year terms of office.
Viceroyalty of New Granada Created in 1739 with its capital in Bogota, this new viceroyalty had jurisdiction over all of the Spanish possessions of northern South America. It had been created as a reflection of the growing economic and demographic importance of that region, and was carved out of the old Viceroyalty of Peru.
Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata Created in 1776 with its capital in Buenos Aires, a port city that had recently gained in both population and importance thanks increased trade and the expansion of Spanish control of the rich grasslands of the Pampas. Buenos Aires become the port of entry and exit for products connected with the silver industry of Upper Peru (now Bolivia), a part of the old Viceroyalty of Peru that was actually removed from this traditional alignment and added to the new Viceroyalty of Rie de la Plata.
Virgen de Guadalupe Beloved manifestation of the Virgin who was believed to have appeared to a humble indigenous man, Juan Diego, on the hill of Tepeyacac near Mexico City in 1531. By the early 19th century the dark-skinned Virgin of Guadalupe enjoyed the devotion of many Mexicans, particularly of the castas and the indigenous peoples. Both Hidalgo and Morelos made effective use of the Virgin as the divine patroness of their movements.
War of the Spanish Succession Conflict (1700-1713) between those backing Austrian Hapsburg claims to the Spanish throne following the death of Carlos II and those behind the effort to install rival claimants related to the French Bourbon dynasty. The latter was victorious.
Zorro Fictional "robin-hood" like character created by US author Johnston McCulley in 1919 in the short story "The Curse of Capistrano." Zorro, who fought against Spanish tyranny in old California, symbolized the uneasy relationship between Spain and this far-flung outpost of its empire, particularly in terms of the quest of local rancheros to achieve more significant political and economic autonomy.